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In the context of science, according to the passage, the interaction of dogmatic beliefs and critical attitude can be best described as:

(2006)


A
A duel between two warriors in which one has to die.
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B
The effect of a chisel on a marble stone while making a sculpture.
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C
The feedstock (natural gas) in fertilizer industry being transformed into fertilizers.
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D
A predator killing its prey.
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E
The effect of fertilizers on a sapling.
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Solution

The correct option is C The feedstock (natural gas) in fertilizer industry being transformed into fertilizers.
Option: (c)

If we look at the idea conveyed by the author in the third paragraph, he says that the critical attitude is not so much opposed to the dogmatic attitude as super-imposed upon it. A critical attitude needs for its raw material, as it were, theories or beliefs which are held more or less dogmatically. Option (c) very well conveys this idea by talking of feedstock in a fertilizer industry which serves as raw material and gets transformed into fertilizers.

Para 1:

· Our propensities to look out for regularities, and to impose laws upon nature, leads to the psychological phenomenon of dogmatic thinking.

· Events which do not yield to these attempts, we are inclined to treat as kind of 'background noise'.

· This dogmatism is to some extent necessary.

· It allows us to approach a good theory in stages, by way of approximations.

Para 2:

· Dogmatic behavior is indicative of strong belief.

· Critical attitude is indicative of a weak belief.

· Hume's theory: strength of a belief should be a product of repetition; thus always grow with experience and always be greater in less primitive persons.

· But dogmatic thinking sometimes creates an attitude of caution and criticism rather than that of dogmatism.

Para 3:

· Distinction between dogmatic and critical thinking brings us right back to the central problem.

· Dogmatic attitude: related to tendency to verify our laws and schemata by seeking to apply them and confirm them, even to the point of neglecting refutations.

· Critical attitude: readiness to change them-to test them; to refute them; to falsify them if possible.

· Critical attitude: can be called the scientific attitude

· Dogmatic attitude: can be called the pseudo-scientific/pre-scientific attitude

· This primitivity also has its logical aspect.

· Critical attitude can be super-imposed on the dogmatic attitude because it needs for its raw material, as it were, theories or beliefs which are held more or less dogmatically.

Para 4:

· Science must begin with myths, and with the criticism of myths.

· Scientific tradition can be distinguished from pre-scientific tradition in having two layers.

o It passes on its theories, but also passes on a critical attitude towards them.

o Theories passed on, not as dogmas but rather with the challenge to discuss them and improve upon them.

Para 5:

· Critical attitude is the attitude of reasonableness, of rationality.

· Before a theory has refuted, we can never know in what way it may have to be modified.


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Our propensity to look out for regularities, and to impose laws upon nature, leads to the psychological phenomenon of dogmatic thinking or, more generally, dogmatic behavior: we expect regularities everywhere and attempt to find them even where there are none; events which do not yield to these attempts we are inclined to treat as a kind of “background noise”; and we stick to our expectations even when they are inadequate and we ought to accept defeat. This dogmatism is to some extent necessary. It is demanded by a situation, which can only be dealt with by forcing our conjectures upon the world. Moreover, this dogmatism allows us to approach a good theory in stages, by way of approximations: if we accept defeat too easily, we may prevent ourselves from finding that we were very nearly right.

It is clear that this dogmatic attitude, which makes us stick to our first impressions, is indicative of a strong belief; while a critical attitude, which is ready to modify its tenets, which admits doubt and demands tests, is indicative of a weaker belief. Now according to Hume‘s theory, and to the popular theory, the strength of a belief should be a product of repetition; thus it should always grow with experience, and always be greater in less primitive persons. But dogmatic thinking, an uncontrolled wish to impose regularities, a manifest pleasure in rites and in repetition as such, is characteristic of primitives and children; and increasing experience and maturity sometimes create an attitude of caution and criticism rather than of dogmatism.

My logical criticism of Hume’s psychological theory, and the considerations connected with it, may seem a little removed from the field of the philosophy of science. But the distinction between dogmatic and critical thinking, or the dogmatic and the critical attitude, brings us right back to our central problem. For the dogmatic attitude is clearly related to the tendency to verify our laws and schemata by seeking to apply them and to confirm them, even to the point of neglecting refutations, whereas the critical attitude is one of readiness to change them, to test them, to refute them, to falsify them, if possible. This suggests that we may identify the critical attitude with the scientific attitude, and the dogmatic attitude with the one, which we have described as pseudo-scientific. It further suggests that genetically speaking the pseudo-scientific attitude is more primitive than, and prior to, the scientific attitude: that it is a pre-scientific attitude. And this primitivity or priority also has its logical aspect. For the critical attitude is not so much opposed to the dogmatic attitude as superimposed upon it: criticism must be directed against existing and influential beliefs in need of critical revision-in other words, dogmatic beliefs. A critical attitude needs for its raw material, as it were, theories or beliefs which are held more or less dogmatically.

Thus, science must begin with myths, and with the criticism of myths; neither with the collection of observations, nor with the invention of experiments, but with the critical discussion of myths, and of magical techniques and practices. The scientific tradition is distinguished from the pre-scientific tradition in having two layers. Like the latter, it passes on its theories; but it also passes on a critical attitude towards them. The theories are passed on, not as dogmas, but rather with the challenge to discuss them and improve upon them.

The critical attitude, the tradition of free discussion of theories with the aim of discovering their weak spots so that they may be improved upon, is the attitude of reasonableness, or rationality. From the point of view here developed, all laws, all theories, remain essentially tentative, or conjectural, or hypothetical, even when we feel unable to doubt them any longer. Before a theory has been refuted we can never know in what way it may have to be modified.

According to the passage, which of the following statements best describes the difference between science and pseudo-science?
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