Soybean Crop Details for Exam

A type of legume native to East Asia, the soybean, soy bean, or soya bean (Glycine max) is widely cultivated for its edible bean, which has a variety of uses. Soybeans are typically used to make non-fermented foods like tofu and tofu skin, as well as soy milk. Natt, tempeh, soy sauce, and fermented bean paste are examples of dishes made from soy. For many packaged meals and animal feeds, fat-free (defatted) soybean meal is an important and affordable source of protein. For instance, many meats and dairy alternatives use components derived from soybeans, such as textured vegetable protein (TVP).

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About Soybean

Substantial amounts of phytic acid, dietary minerals, and B vitamins are present in soy beans. Another byproduct of processing the soybean crop is soy vegetable oil, which is used in both food and industrial uses. The most crucial source of protein for feed for agricultural animals is soy (which in turn yields animal protein for human consumption).

History of Soybean

Long before there were any written records, soybeans were an important crop in East Asia. The origin of soy bean agriculture is still up for debate in science. The Glycine soja (formerly known as G. ussuriensis), a legume indigenous to central China, is the closest living relative of the soybean. Evidence suggests that soybeans were domesticated in China between 7000 and 6600 BC, Japan between 5000 and 3000 BC, and Korea around 1000 BC. At the Mumun-period Daundong site, the first clearly domesticated, cultigen-sized soybean was found. Soy was revered for its usefulness in crop rotation before it was fermented into products like fermented black soybeans (douchi), jiang (Chinese miso), soy sauce, tempeh, natt, and miso. It was also consumed alone, as bean curd and soy milk.

Around the 13th century, or maybe even earlier, soybeans were brought to Java in the Malay Archipelago. By the 17th century, European traders (Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch) began trading soybeans and their products in Asia through their commerce with the Far East, and by this time, they had made it to the Indian Subcontinent. By the 18th century, China had sent soybeans to the Americas and Europe. African countries today consume a lot of soy, which was first brought to the continent from China in the late 19th century.

Soybean Climate Requirements

The ideal growing conditions for cultivation are between 20 and 30 °C (70 and 85 °F), with temperatures below 20 °C (70 °F) and above 40 °C (105 °F) severely stunting growth. Cultivation is successful in hot summer regions. They may thrive in a variety of soil types, although damp alluvial soils with high organic content are best for their growth. Like the majority of legumes, soybeans fix nitrogen through a symbiotic interaction with the bacterium Bradyrhizobium japonicum (syn. Rhizobium japonicum). When planting other crops in rotation with soy, farmers can use less nitrogen fertiliser and still enhance yields thanks to the ability of soy to fix nitrogen. However, the long-term abundance of organic matter in soils where soy and other crops (like maize) are cultivated in rotation may come with some trade-offs. However, for optimal outcomes, the soybean (or other legumes) seed should be combined with an inoculum of the right strain of bacteria prior to planting. Modern crop varieties typically require 80 to 120 days from planting to harvest and grow to a height of about 1 m (3 ft).

Soybean Soil Requirements

Soybean farming is best suited to fertile, well-drained loam soils with a pH range of 6.0 to 7.5. Seed germination is inhibited by sodic and salinized soils. The crop is also harmed by water logging. With an ideal pH range of 5.5 to 6.5, soybeans can grow on soil that is only slightly acidic. But because the toxicity of aluminium (Al) and manganese (Mn) is likely to be an issue on such soils, they are not tolerant of strongly acidic soils (below pH 4.5). Conversely, it is not advised to grow soybean in soils with a pH higher than 8 because micronutrient shortages, such as those in zinc (Zn) and iron, can occur (Fe). Because its roots are very shallow and its structure restricts water absorption during dry periods, soybeans are not drought-tolerant.

Therefore, due mostly to drought stress, soybean performs poorly on sandy soils and soils with little water storage, such as gravelly or shallow soils. Clay soils with less rainfall have a lower likelihood of establishing new plants and germination of seeds. Between emergence and the four leaf stage, soybeans are prone to water logging. The ability of soybeans to tolerate water logging after this point makes them superior to other non-rice crops, which is another reason to grow them. Additionally, soybeans may be able to withstand flood irrigation methods better than other crops.

Soybean Farming Techniques

Land selection is very important in soybean farming as this will impact the overall production of soybean. The main land must not have been sown with soybean crop in the previous season to avoid volunteer plants that cause admixture. Land continuously cultivated with soybean may harbour wilt pathogens. So these kinds of fields must be avoided. By following the crop rotation, endemic pathogens can be reduced. A soil with high organic matter definitely helps in leading the production of vigorous seeds. In order to maximise the output of soybeans, it is crucial to choose the right land. To prevent admixture-causing volunteer plants, the main area cannot have previously been planted with soybeans. Soybean fields that are regularly farmed must be avoided because they may harbour the wilt pathogen. The prevalence of endemic pathogens can be decreased by using crop rotation. A soil with a high organic content definitely aids in the formation of a seed that is vigorous. Depending on the cultivation techniques used, the field should be divided into beds and channels of 4 feet by 6 feet or ridges and furrows measuring 1 foot wide.

Soybean Physiology

The taproot of the soybean plant has tiny, spherical, occasionally lobed nodules. The stems have branches, and the cotyledon axils have buds. Unless the tip is destroyed, the major leaves do not often form. The majority of cultivars shed their leaves as the maturation of the pods progresses. The leaves are alternate, trifoliate, and infrequently five-flowered; the petiole is long, narrow, and cylindrical; the stipules are small and minute; the leaflets are ovate to lanceolate, typically pale green in colour, with rounded bases and acute or obtuse apexes. Short clustered axillary racemes with terminal inflorescences are the type. Flowers are tiny, bracteoles two, oblong, sharp. The norm is self-pollination. Early in the morning, flowers open, and pollen is released shortly before or at the moment of opening, landing squarely on the stigma. Flowers are visited by bees and other insects so that cross-pollination can occur, however, this is typically less than 1%.

Soybean Crop Development

Understanding growth stages can help farmers carry out more timely production practices, which in turn leads to higher yields. There is always field variation in maturity so a field is considered to be at a particular growth stage, only when more than 50% of plants in the field are at that stage.

• Germination Stage: The radical, or major root, leaves the seed first. Soon after, the cotyledons (seed leaves) are pulled along by the hypocotyl (stem) as it starts to grow toward the soil’s surface. As the cotyledons open up and the hypocotyl emerges, it straightens up. Depending on the cultivar, planting depth, moisture levels, and temperature, emergence typically takes five to 10 days. At this time, the major root is also starting to send out lateral roots.
• Cotyledon Stage: Unifoliate leaves are fully extended at this stage. The young plant’s nutritional requirements are met by the cotyledons (for about seven to 10 days). Approximately 70% of the cotyledons’ dry weight will be lost as a result of the nutrition reallocation.
• First trifoliolate: The first trifoliolate has opened and fully emerged.
• Second node: The 6 to 8-inch-tall plants have three nodes and two leaflets that are fully extended. Just now, the bacteria are beginning to actively fix nitrogen. The majority of these root nodules contain millions of bacteria and are located less than 10 inches below the soil’s surface. The nitrogen fixation process is active in nodules that are pink or crimson within. Nodules that are white, brown, or green are presumably parasitic on the plant since they are ineffective at fixing nitrogen.
• Third to Fifth nodes: Soybean plants are about 7-9 inches tall with four nodes (three unfolded leaflets). The number of branches seen on the plant may increase at this point.
• At this stage the plant normally has axillary buds in the top stem that will develop into flower clusters (racemes).
• Sixth node: At this stage, plants are typically 12 to 14 inches tall with seven nodes that have unfurled leaflets. The plant’s cotyledons and unifoliolate may have died. Each two to three days, new phases are rapidly developing. In any rows 30 inches or fewer, lateral roots have underground crossed the row.
• Flower Initiation: Every node along the main stem of the plant has at least one flower. The plants are now 15 to 18 inches tall. Depending on the vegetative stage, soybean flowering always starts at the third to the sixth node on the main stem. The plant will go through several stages of this blossom initiation. Eventually, branches will also bloom. Basal pods are always more developed because flowering occurs from the base to the tip of each raceme.
• Full Bloom: Beans are roughly 17 to 22 inches long. One of the two top nodes of the main stem has an open blossom on it. These two top nodes each have a leaf that is fully formed. At this point, the soybean has acquired roughly 50% of its mature height and around 25% of its entire dry weight and nutrient content.
• Pod Initiation: Plants can grow to a height of 23 to 32 inches. Each of the top four nodes has a 3/16 inch-long pod. At this period, yield can be impacted by temperature or moisture stress through total pod count, beans per pod count, or seed size.
• Full Pod: At the start of the full pod stage, this stage displays quick pod growth as well as the emergence of the seed. The most significant time for seed output is at this stage.
• Seed Initiation: At this stage, the plant needs a lot of water and nutrients to finish filling the seeds. The soybean provides almost half of the necessary N, P, and K from the plant’s vegetative portions and approximately half from N fixation and nutrient uptake by the roots, resulting in nutritional redistribution in the plant.

• Full Seed: The overall pod weight will peak at this stage, which is also referred to as the “green bean” stage or the beginning of the complete seed stage. The growth of the beans is quick.
• Initial Maturity: On the main stem, this stage starts with one regular pod that develops the mature colour (brown or tan). Individual seeds reach their apex in terms of dry matter. This can be noticed visibly when the seeds and pods lose all of their green hues (they appear yellow). When seeds reach physiological maturity, they have roughly 60% moisture.
• Full Maturity: It will only take five to ten days of suitable drying weather beyond this point for the soybeans to be at less than 15% moisture, or harvest moisture, on the soybean plant, when 95% of the pods have reached their maturity colour.

Soybean Crop Diseases

• Bacterial Pustule: Xanthomonas campestris pv. glycines bacteria are the cause of this illness. It grows when it is warm and rainy. In wet weather, the disease spreads quickly. A seed has been born. Early yellowing and defoliation of the soybean crop are caused by the disease, which results in losses of up to 18 percent. On the top of the leaves, little yellowish-green pods with reddish brown centres develop. The centre of each individual spot seems to be slightly elevated. On the underside of the leaves are tiny pustules. On pods, similar pustules can be seen. The pods could combine to create huge, erratic dead patches. Sometimes, the dead tissue may rip and separate. Heavy infestation causes the leaves to become yellow, drop, and in plants that are sensitive, completely defoliate. In crops, the bacterium persists.
• Myrothecium Leaf Spot: Myrothecium roridum Tode ex Fries is the cause of the disease. Earlier, it was known as a miner’s illness. It recently gained a significant proportion. When it rains, the sickness spreads quickly, and warm, humid weather makes it worse. The disease will probably result in yield losses for the soybean crop of 20 to 40%. On the leaves of the diseased plants, tiny round or oval brown spots grow with a dark brown or purple border. Around these spots, which appear as concentric rings, translucent regions grow. These places afterwards grow dark green sporodochia. Other aerial parts, such as the stem, petiole, pods, etc., may also exhibit the symptoms. The leaves may dry out as a result of the spots merging to form uneven shapes. The disease endures in crop debris and seeds.
• Rust: The cause of this disease is Fafopsora Pachairaisi. This can be found in India’s north-eastern regions. The leaves initially have brown spots on them. They then covered the entire leaf. On leaves, there is a brown powder that over time makes the entire leaf brown.
• Yellow Mosaic: Mung bean yellow mosaic virus is the culprit (MBYMV). This virus is extremely harmful and can result in significant yield losses. Conspicuous systemic brilliant yellow mottling of leaves is a defining sign. The yellow areas are sporadic or appear in arbitrary bands along the principal veins. This virus can infect a variety of hosts and cannot be spread through sap or seeds. Whiteflies are the MBYMV insect vector. Bemelia tabaci Infection within 75 days of planting causes a considerable yield drop; infection after 75 days causes non-significant production losses.
• Soybean Mosaic: The virus known as Soybean Mosaic is to blame. Sap, aphids, and seed can all spread the SMV. Plants that are diseased are typically stunted and have distorted leaves (puckered, crinkled, ruffled, stunted, narrow). Frequently, the portions are stunted. fewer and smaller seeds, and are flattened or curled. Infected seeds either do not germinate or produce seedlings that are ill. Virus-infected seeds are sown in order to transmit the disease, which overwinters in living plants.

Soybean Harvesting and Storage

When the weather is not ideal, harvesting can be done when the grain moisture content is between 14 and 15 percent. Farmers can lower the harvest-related losses by doing this. The choice of the cultivars affects how much soy is lost. Early developing crops typically experience greater loss during harvest. If it rains while harvesting, harvesting should be finished right away. By quickly following a rainstorm with harvesting and using all available drying techniques, rain damage can be minimised. The impact of weathering and seed degeneration will be minimised by harvesting at the most advantageous time. In order to retain the excellent quality of seed, harvested crops should be maintained in a high, clean area away from other seeds and other materials. Careful handling can prevent mechanical abuse that harms soybean seeds and reduces germination during harvesting and threshing processes.

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Soybean Economy

Over 353 million tonnes of soybeans were produced globally in 2020, with Brazil and the United States accounting for 66 percent of the total. After the 1960s, production has grown significantly all throughout the world, but especially in South America since a cultivar that thrived in low latitudes was created in the 1980s. Large rises in global demand for meat products, particularly in developing nations like China, which alone accounted for more than 60% of imports, have been a major driver of the industry’s explosive growth. India is the 5th largest soybean producer. Most of the soybean produced in India is used domestically and very little is exported. India also imports soybean from other countries to meet the domestic shortage.

Top 10 Soybean Producing Countries

1. Brazil
2. United States of America
3. Argentina
4. China
5. India
6. Paraguay
7. Canada
8. Russia
9. Bolivia
10. Ukraine

Top 8 Soybean Producing States in India

While Madhya Pradesh has been the largest soybean – producing state in India for the past few years, Maharashtra gives it tough competition and doesn’t lag far behind..

1. Madhya Pradesh
2. Maharashtra
3. Rajasthan
4. Karnataka
5. Telangana
6. Andhra Pradesh
7. Gujarat
8. Chhattisgarh

Indian Soybean Growing Zones

Soybean as a Food

Among the legumes, the soybean is prized for having a high protein content (38 to 45%) as well as a high oil content (around 20%). The most lucrative agricultural export from the United States is soybeans. A little more than 85% of the world’s soybean harvest is converted into soybean meal and soybean oil, with the remaining 15% being processed in various ways or consumed whole. The two main varieties of soybeans are “vegetable” (garden) and “field” (oil). Vegetable kinds are larger, higher in protein, and lower in oil than field types, and they cook more quickly, have a mild, nutty flavour, and better texture. The top foods produced from soybeans include tofu, soy milk, and soy sauce. The higher protein cultivars developed from vegetable soybeans that were first imported to the United States in the late 1930s are preferred by producers. The “garden” cultivars typically aren’t good candidates for mechanical combine harvesting since the mature pods have a propensity to break.

Approximately 18 to 19% of soybean seed is oil. Both liquid and partially hydrogenated soybean oils are shipped to other countries, marketed as “vegetable oil,” or they wind up in a wide range of processed goods. Products made from soy are frequently consumed by people. Soy sauce, soy milk, tofu, soy meal, soy flour, textured vegetable protein (TVP), soy curls, tempeh, soy lecithin, and soybean oil are typical soybean products. Soybeans can also be consumed raw with little preparation. Babies who are not exclusively breastfed are occasionally given soy-based infant formula (SBIF); it can be helpful for babies who are allergic to pasteurised cow milk proteins or who are being fed a vegan diet. It can be purchased as a liquid concentrate, ready-to-feed, or powdered form.

When soybeans are prepared, they can take on the texture and look of many different meals. For instance, soy is a key component of a number of dairy and meat substitutes, including soy milk, margarine, ice cream, yoghurt, cheese, and cream cheese (e.g. veggie burgers). Soy nut butter, which has a consistency akin to peanut butter, is a product made from soybeans. Soybeans that have been roasted and ground can be used as coffee’s caffeine-free replacement. When soybeans are roasted and ground, they resemble conventional coffee beans or can be used as a powder that tastes and smells like roasted soybeans and is similar to instant coffee.

Soybean Nutritional Information

Soybean Health Effects

In some people, consuming a lot of soy may help prevent breast cancer or a return of the disease. In those with chronic kidney disease, consuming soy protein appears to lower protein in the urine and other indicators of kidney function. Infants with galactosemia who are fed soy-based formula may experience fewer symptoms. The amount of total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL or “bad”) cholesterol appears to be slightly reduced when soy protein is substituted for other dietary proteins or when soy fibre products are used. In patients with mildly elevated blood pressure, eating soy protein appears to somewhat lower blood pressure. Infants with lactose intolerance who are fed soy-based formula may experience fewer symptoms. Some patients report that consuming soy protein or isoflavone extracts by mouth can help lessen hot flashes brought on by menopause. People with metabolic syndrome who consume soy protein products have reduced blood sugar levels and show improvement in other illness indicators. It appears that consuming soy protein increases muscle strength. It appears to function similarly to beef, dairy, and whey proteins. When consumed orally, soy protein or extract can help women who are approaching or have passed menopause maintain or even improve their bone mineral density (BMD).

Some individuals who suffer from hypothyroidism also have low iodine levels. Consuming soy may exacerbate this illness in those with low iodine levels. A substance called phytoestrogens is present in soy. If kidney failure patients consume soy products, their blood levels of phytoestrogens may rise too high. Products made from oy might make kidney stones more likely. Products made from soy contain a lot of oxalates, which are compounds. The major component of kidney stones is oxalates. Consuming soy products could raise your risk of developing bladder cancer.

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