Marathas and Other Provincial Kingdoms [UPSC History Notes]

The Marathas emerged as an important power during the decline of the Mughal Empire. Various factors contributed to the rise of the Marathas in the 16th and 17th centuries. The Marathas are an important chapter in the modern history of India and is hence an important topic for the IAS exam. In this article, you can learn all about the Marathas and other provincial powers in the Indian subcontinent.

Marathas

The physical environment of the Maratha country developed certain unique traits among the Marathas. The mountainous region and the dense forests made them brave soldiers and adopt guerilla tactics. They built a number of forts in the mountains. The spread of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra under the influence of spiritual leaders like Ramdas, Vaman Pandit, Tukaram and Eknath inculcated a spirit of religious unity among them, and the much-needed political unity was conferred by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. The Marathas held important positions in the administration and military systems of the Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar, and their power and influence in the affairs of the government had grown as the Mughals advanced towards the Deccan. There were a number of influential Maratha families such as the Mores, the Ghatages, the Nimbalkers, etc but the Marathas did not have any large, well-established states as the Rajputs had. The credit for establishing a powerful Maratha state goes to Shahji Bhonsle and his son, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj.

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Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and Rise of Marathas

Shivaji Raje Bhonsle (c. 1674 – 1680 CE)

Image source: https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/

• Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was born at Shivneri (Poona) in c. 1627 CE or 1630 (The official date of birth given by the Maharashtra State government is February 19, 1630). His father was Shahji Bhonsle and his mother was Jija Bai.
• Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj inherited the jagir of Poona from his father in c. 1637 CE. After the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadev in c. 1647 CE, he assumed full charge of his jagir. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj proved his mettle at the young age of 18 when he overran a number of hill forts near Poona – Rajgarh, Kondana and Torna from the ruler of Bijapur (between c. 1645 – 1647 CE).
• In c. 1656 CE, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj conquered Javli from the Maratha chief, Chandra Rao More. The conquest of Javli made him the undisputed master of the Mavala area. In c. 1657 CE, he attacked the Bijapur kingdom and captured a number of hill forts in the Konkan (north) region.
• Battle of Pratapgarh (c. 1659 CE) – The Sultan of Bijapur (Adil Shah) sent Afzal Khan, a premier Bijapuri noble against Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. But Afzal Khan was murdered by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj in a daring manner. The Maratha troops overran the powerful fort of Panhala and poured into south Konkan and the Kolhapur districts, making extensive conquests. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj’s military conquests made him a legendary figure in the Maratha region.
• Aurangzeb instructed Shaista Khan, the Mughal governor of the Deccan to invade Shahji’s dominions. In c. 1660 CE, Shaista Khan captured Poona and made it his headquarters. The Mughals then took control of North Konkan. However, in c. 1663 CE, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj carried out a daring night attack on the camp of Shaista Khan, killing his son, one of his captains and wounding the Khan. This daring act affected the prestige of Shaista Khan and he was recalled by Aurangzeb and sent to Bengal as a punishment. 
• In c. 1664 CE, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj made another bold move. He attacked the premier Mughal port, Surat and looted it, returning home laden with treasure.
• Aurangzeb deputed Raja Jai Singh of Amber to destroy the Maratha power. He made careful diplomatic and military preparations. He successfully besieged the Purander Fort where Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj lodged his family and treasure. He then opened negotiations with Jai Singh and in c. 1665 CE, the Treaty of Purander was signed. According to this treaty, out of the 35 forts held by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, 23 forts were to be surrendered to the Mughals, while the remaining 12 forts were to be left to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj on conditions of service and loyalty to the throne. On the other hand, the Mughals recognized the right of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj to hold certain parts of the Bijapur kingdom. As Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj asked to exempt him from personal service to the Mughals, his minor son, Sambhaji was granted a mansab of 5000.
• Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj along with his son visited Agra in c. 1665 CE but he was imprisoned there. He managed to escape with his son while disguised as a palanquin bearer.
• In c. 1670 CE, he sacked Surat a second time, thereby renewing the contest with the Mughals. During the next four years, he recovered a large number of his forts, including Purander from the Mughals and made deep inroads into the Mughal territories, especially Berar and Khandesh. 
• In c. 1674 CE, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj crowned himself at Raigarh and assumed the title “Chhatrapati”. He was by now the most powerful among the Maratha chiefs and by virtue of the extent of his dominions and the size of his army claimed a status equal to the Deccani sultans.
• In c. 1676 CE, he led an expedition into the Carnatic region and captured Ginjee and Vellore.
• Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj died in c. 1680 CE at Raigad. The Maratha kingdom which he founded, dominated western India for a century and a half.

Sambhaji (c. 1681 – 1689 CE)

• There ensued a war of succession after the death of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj between his sons, Sambhaji and Rajaram. Sambhaji emerged victorious.
• The rebellious son of Aurangzeb took shelter with him. In c. 1689 CE, he was defeated by the Mughals at Sangameshwar. He was paraded before Aurangzeb and executed as a rebel and an infidel. The widow of Sambhaji along with her son, Shahu were made prisoners.

Rajaram (c. 1689 – 1707 CE)

• Rajaram succeeded to the throne but the Mughals made him flee to the Ginjee fort. After the Mughals captured Ginjee, he moved to Vishalgarh and then to Satara. He died in c. 1707 CE at Satara and was succeeded by his minor son, Shivaji Ⅱ with his mother Tara Bai as regent.
• At around the same time, Shahu was released by Zulfiqar Khan hoping for a civil war among Marathas and the Mughals were successful in dividing the Marathas into two rival groups – one under Tara Bai and the other under Shahu (Sambhaji’s son). In c. 1707 CE, with the support of Balaji Vishwanath, Shahu defeated Tara Bai at the Battle of Khed. She then moved to Kolhapur and established the Royal House of Kolhapur.

Shahu (c. 1707 – 1749 CE)

• This period was marked by the ascendancy of a lineage of Chitpavan Brahmin ministers, who held the title of Peshwa (Chief Minister) and virtually controlled the Maratha state, reducing the Bhonsles to nominal heads. Balaji Vishwanath was the first prominent figure of this line who helped Shahu in his rise to power. 
• In c. 1719 CE, Shahu assisted the Saiyyad brothers in the execution of Farrukh Siyar and got his mother released. Soon after, he declared independence (Swaraj) of Maratha land.

Rajaram Ⅱ/Ramraja (c. 1749 – 1777 CE)

• He was the adopted son of Shahu. Tarabai presented him as the grandson of Rajaram and herself to take control of the state. However, he was only an imposter; Baji Rao retained him as the titular Chhatrapati. The power of the Chhatrapati was almost completely overshadowed by that of the Peshwa.

Royal House of Kolhapur

Shivaji  Ⅱ (c. 1710 – 1714 CE)

• He was the son of Tarabai and Rajaram.

Sambhaji  Ⅱ (c. 1714 – 1760 CE)

• He was the son of Rajaram from his second wife Rajabai who overthrew Shivaji  Ⅱ and Tarabai.
• In c. 1713 CE, he signed the Treaty of Warna with his cousin Shahu wherein the two principalities (Satara and Kolhapur) of the Bhonsle family were formalised.

The Peshwas 

The word Peshwa has its roots in the Persian language meaning “foremost”, and was introduced in the Deccan by the Muslim rulers. The early Peshwas were the prime ministers of the Maratha Chhatrapatis who were appointed to assist the rulers in different administrative and political affairs. The Peshwas later assumed the number one position in Maratha politics. 

Balaji Vishwanath Bhatt (c. 1713 – 1719 CE)

• The Bhatts were Chitpavan Brahmins hailing from Shrivardhan in the Konkan region.
• He made the post of the Peshwa hereditary and is also known in history for making the position of Peshwa the most important and influential in the Maratha administration.
• He played an important role in the civil war as he sought the support of all Maratha leaders for Shahu and thus, helped Shahu in his rise to power.
• In c. 1719 CE, Balaji Vishwanath was successful in attaining certain rights from the then Mughal Emperor, Farrukh Siyar such as recognition of Shahu as the Maratha king and to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the six Mughal provinces of the Deccan, including the Carnatic and Mysore.
• Along with Shahu, Balaji Vishwanath assisted the Sayyid brothers in deposing the Mughal emperor, Farrukh Siyar in c. 1719 CE. 

Baji Rao Ⅰ (c. 1720 – 1740 CE)

• Eldest son of Balaji Vishwanath who succeeded him as Peshwa at the young age of twenty. The Maratha power rose to its heights under him and he was the most famous among all the Peshwas.
• He preached and propagated the idea of Hindu-pad-padshahi (Hindu Empire) to gain the support of the Hindu chiefs against the Mughals, their common enemy.
• During his lifetime, he did not lose any battle. He defeated Nizam-ul-Mulk (Deccan) twice, at Palkhed and Bhopal, and compelled him to grant chauth and sardeshmukhi of the five provinces of the Deccan.
• In c. 1722 CE, he seized Salsette and Bassein from the Portuguese.
• In c. 1728 CE, he shifted the administrative capital from Satara to Pune.
• He initiated the system of the confederacy among the Maratha chiefs. Under this system, a territory was assigned to each Maratha chief which he could administer autonomously. Consequently, many Maratha families became prominent and established their authority over different parts of India. They were the Peshwas at Poona, the Bhonsles at Nagpur, the Scindias at Gwalior, the Holkars at Indore and the Gaekwads at Baroda.

Balaji Baji Rao Ⅰ/Nana Sahib Ⅰ (c. 1740 – 1761 CE)

• Balaji Baji Rao Ⅰ succeeded his father as Peshwa at the young age of nineteen.
• Shahu, the Maratha king died in c. 1749 CE without an issue. His nominated successor Ramaraja, was even though accepted by Balaji Baji Rao, gradually the supreme power of the Maratha confederacy passed into the hands of the Peshwa (by the Sangola Agreement c. 1750 CE).
• In c. 1752 CE, the Peshwa entered into an agreement with the Mughal Emperor. According to this agreement, the Peshwa, Balaji Baji Rao assured the Mughal Emperor that he would protect the Mughal empire from internal as well as external enemies and in return, the chauth of the north-west provinces and the total revenue of Ajmer and Agra would be granted to the Marathas.
• The Marathas bravely fought the Third Battle of Panipat (c. 1761 CE) when Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India (as per the agreement of c. 1752 CE). However, the Marathas were defeated and many Maratha leaders and thousands of soldiers died in the battle. On hearing the sad end of the battle, Balaji Baji Rao also died.
• The defeat at the Battle of Panipat checked the expansion of the Marathas and also fragmented the empire which never fought again as one unit. Meanwhile, the branches of the Bhonsle family relocated to Kolhapur and Nagpur, while the mainline remained in the Deccan heartland, at Satara.

Madhav Rao (c. 1761 – 1772 CE)

• He was an outstanding Peshwa, who restored the lost territories of the Maratha empire.
• He defeated the Nizam and also made Haidar Ali (Mysore) pay tribute, and reasserted control over northern India by defeating the Rohillas and subjugating the Rajput states and Jat chiefs.
• When the Marathas re-established their hold, Madhav Rao invited the Mughal emperor, Shah Alam to Delhi (`~c. 1771 CE).
• During his reign, semi-independent states were created like the Holkars, the Scindias and the Gaekwads (Gaekwars).

Raghunath Rao (c. 1772 – 1773 CE)

• There ensued a struggle for power between Raghunath Rao (younger brother of Balaji Baji Rao) and Narayan Rao (younger brother of Madhav Rao).

Narayan Rao (c. 1772 – 1773 CE)

• He was murdered on the orders of Raghunath Rao.

Raghunath Rao (c. 1773 – 1774 CE)

• He seized the throne but was overthrown by the emperor.

Sawai Madhav Rao (c. 1774 – 1795 CE)

• He was the son of Narayan Rao, who was just 40 days old when crowned as the Peshwa. The empire was managed by Nana Phadnavis, an able administrator and a great warrior, with the help of the Barbhai Council (a twelve-member regency council).
• Raghunath Rao sought the help of the British which led to the First Anglo-Maratha War (c. 1775 – 1782 CE). Nana Phadnavis defeated the British at the Battle of Talegaon (c. 1776 CE) and then, the famous treaty of Purandar (c. 1776 CE) and the treaty of Salbai (c. 1782 CE) were signed. The treaty virtually restored the status quo except for the fact that the English retained Salsette and dropped the cause of Raghunath Rao.
• In c. 1800 CE, Nana Phadnavis died and thereafter, the Marathas could not sustain against the British and could not restore their past glory.

Baji Rao Ⅱ (c. 1796 – 1818 CE)

• Son of Raghunath Rao and the last Peshwa.
• In c. 1802 CE, he signed the treaty of Bassein with the British which allowed the British to take control over the Maratha region and also of Deccan and western India.
• In the Third Anglo-Maratha War (c. 1818 CE), he was defeated by the East India Company and the Peshwa’s territory in central Maharashtra was annexed to the British East India company’s Bombay province.
• His adopted son Nana Sahib (Dhondu Pant) participated in the famous revolt of c. 1857 CE against the British.

The Marathas emerged as a great power in India after the decline of the Mughal Empire. However, they could not prevent the establishment of British power in India. One of the main causes for the decline of the Maratha empire was the lack of unity among the Maratha chiefs (Holkars, Scindias, Bhonsles). Also, the Maratha army was ill-equipped as compared to the British army.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj’s Administration

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj laid the foundations of a sound system of administration. His system of administration was very much influenced by the Mughal and Deccani states of administration. The Maratha Empire was called Swarajya or Mulk-e-Kadim.

Central Administration

The king was assisted by a council of ministers called Ashtapradhan. Each minister headed a department and was directly answerable to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. These offices were neither permanent nor hereditary.

1. Peshwa – Pant Pradhan, who was in charge of finance and general administration. Later Peshwa became more powerful and became the Prime Minister.
2. Sar-i-Naubat or Senapati – Military commander, an honorary post.
3. Amatya/Majumdar – Accountant General.
4. Waqia Navis – Intelligence and police, posts and household affairs.
5. Surnavis or Chitnis or Sachiv – who looked after official correspondence. 
6. Sumanta – Master of ceremonies and foreign affairs.
7. Nyayadhish – Justice.
8. Pandita Rao – Charities and religious administration.

All the ministers except Nyayadhish and Pandita Rao participated in wars. 

Provincial Administration

The provinces were known as Prants and it was under the charge of a Subedar. The Sarsubedar used to control and supervise the work of the Subedar. The Tarfs were controlled by a havaldar. Villages or Mauzas were the lowest unit of administration. In rural regions, a police officer was called Faujdar and in urban regions, he was called Kotwal. Under the Marathas, performance-based Brahmin elites were called Kamvishdar who controlled the central bureaucracy and the local administration and also enjoyed powers of tax assessment and collection. They provided information about local conditions to the superior officials. 

Prants (Province)      ⇒    Subedar supervised by Sarsubedar

                        ⇓

              Tarfs (Districts)      ⇒    Havaldar (law and order)

                        ⇓

          Parganas (sub-districts)  ⇒ Deshpande (Account and record keeper) and Deshmukh (law and order)

                         ⇓

          Mauzas (Village)  ⇒ Kulkarni (Account and record keeper) and Patil (law and order).

Army 

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was a military genius and his army was well-organised. The regular army (paga) consisted of about 30,000 to 40,000 cavalry supervised by havaldars who received fixed salaries. The lowest head of the cavalry was called Naik. There were two divisions in the Maratha cavalry –

1. Bargirs – equipped and paid by the state.
2. Silahdars – maintained by the nobles.

The forts were carefully supervised, Mavali soldiers and gunners were appointed there. Three men of equal rank were placed in charge of each fort to guard against treachery. By the end of his reign, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj had about 240 forts. He also built a powerful navy for guarding the Maratha ports and collecting taxes from the incoming and outgoing ships.

Revenue 

The revenue system of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was based on that of Malik Amber of Ahmednagar. The measuring rod (lathi) was used for measuring land. Lands were also classified into three categories – paddy fields, garden lands and hilly tracts. He appointed his own revenue officials called Karkuns and reduced the powers of the existing Kulkarnis and Deshmukhs.

Chauth and sardeshmukhi were the two major sources of revenue that were collected in the neighbouring territories of the Mughal empire or Deccan Sultanates (and not in the Maratha kingdom). Chauth was one-fourth of the land revenue paid to the Marathas in order to avoid the Maratha raids. Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of ten percent on those lands on which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights.

Other Provincial Kingdoms

Bengal 

• With the gradual weakening of the central Mughal authority, Murshid Quli Khan who served as a diwan under Aurangzeb became virtually independent but had to pay tribute to the Mughal Emperor.
• In c. 1739 CE, he was replaced by Alivardi Khan and became the Nawab himself.
• These Nawabs brought peace and stability in the region and also promoted trade, agriculture and industry.
• They provided equal employment opportunities to both Hindus and Muslims.
• However, they failed to understand the long-term implications of the presence of European trading companies in these areas and could not keep up the level of their military preparedness with the European powers.
• Consequently, there were battles and wars between the two, for example, Siraj-ud-Daula, the successor of Alivardi Khan, had to fight the East India Company over the trading rights in c. 1756 CE. His defeat in the Battle of Plassey (c. 1757 CE) resulted in the subjugation of Bengal as well as India by the British. 

Awadh 

• During the decline of the Mughal power, another provincial kingdom – Awadh, emerged under governor Saadat Khan Burhan ul Mulk.
• He made his position hereditary just before his death in c. 1739 CE and later his successors, Safdar Jung and Asaf ud Daulah played an important role in the politics of northern India and gave long-term administrative stability to the Awadh province.
• Under the Nawabs, Faizabad and Lucknow emerged as centres of cultural excellence comparable to Delhi in the spheres of arts, literature and crafts.
• Regional architecture also reflected itself in the form of Imambarahs and other buildings.
• The evolution of the dance form of kathak was the outcome of this cultural synthesis.

Rajputs 

• Rajputs had served well under the Mughals and in exchange, they were granted considerable autonomy in their watan jagirs.
• However, during the reign of Aurangzeb, the relationship between the Mughals and the Rajputs suffered, mainly due to his interference in the succession dispute of Marwar.
• Moreover, most of the Rajput states were constantly involved in petty fights and civil wars.
• One of the important principalities that emerged in the early 18th century was that of Jaipur (earlier Amber), located in eastern Rajasthan.
  • Its ruler, Sawai Jai Singh emerged as the single most important ruler in the region.
• With the rise of the Marathas, Rajput influence began to decrease and Jaipur became a vulnerable target for the ambitions of the Marathas particularly, Mahadaji Scindia.

Punjab 

• The decline of the Mughal power gave Sikhs the opportunity to rise.
• By c. 1770 CE, there was a confederation of about 60 chieftains, some of who later emerged as princely states under the British such as Patiala and Nabha.
• It was Maharaja Ranjit Singh (grandson of Charhat Singh Sukerchakia) who brought the Sikh chiefs west of the river Sutlej under his control and established a powerful Sikh empire in Punjab.
• He started controlling the different trade routes, and in order to enhance his revenues started imposing monopolies on the trade in salt, grain and textiles from Kashmir.
• Using these earnings, he built up a modernized army of 40,000 cavalry and infantry and by c. 1809 CE emerged as the undisputed master of Punjab.
• His rule lasted for four decades, c. 1799 – 1839 CE. However, within ten years of his death, the British annexed Punjab.

South India

The principal states that rose to prominence in the latter half of the 18th century (after 1740 CE) were –

1. Travancore in Kerala under Martanda Varma and Rama Varma
2. Mysore under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan

Before them, there were three formidable powers (though representatives of Mughal authority) in the south –

1. The Marathas who were present both at Thanjavur and elsewhere,
2. Sadullah Khan of Arcot (Karnataka) who ruled around the 1700s and 
3. The Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad.

However, in the second half of the 18th century, the power of all three of these declined.

The State of Travancore

Martanda Varma ruled Travancore (southern Kerala state of Venad) from c. 1729 – 1758 CE, built a strong standing army and fortified the northern limits of his kingdom. He was succeeded by Rama Varma (c. 1758 – 1798 CE) who was able to protect his kingdom successfully against a new rival power – Mysore.

Mysore 

Mysore emerged as a powerful state under the rulers of the Vadiyar dynasty (or Wodeyar). Being a landlocked region, Mysore depended on ports of the Indian east coast for trade and military supplies. In c. 1761 CE, a cavalry commander of migrant origin, Haidar Ali attained sufficient power in the kingdom to reduce the Vadiyars to mere figureheads. Haidar Ali, and later around c. 1782 CE his son Tipu Sultan worked hard to consolidate Mysore and to have access to both coasts of Peninsular India. They were also relatively successful against the Kodavas (the inhabitants of the upland kingdom of Kodagu, Coorg), Coastal Karnataka and northern Kerala which enabled Tipu Sultan to have diplomatic and commercial relations on his own with the Middle East. However, they had to fight against the local chiefs, the Poligars. They eventually lost their kingdom to the English East India Company.

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