how does 1) crossing over and 2) linkage affect the phenomenon of independant assortment

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Solution

1. Crossing over can result in two traits on homologous chromosomes being a part of the same chromosome and hence cannot show independent assortment as genes on the same chromosome would be inherited together.
2. Linkage is the tendency of certain alleles to be inherited together. These alleles are located on the same chromosome therefore they do not show independent assortment.

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The 9:3:3:1 dihybrid ratio is due to
(a) Segeregation (b) crossing over (c) independent assortment
(d) homologus pairing

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