Question

Trace the chronology of wars India fought with its neighbours since independence up till the end of the 20th century. What structural and policy changes India brought in order to tackle such high intensity protracted wars

Answer 1

Approach:

• You need to discuss various wars India fought with its neighbours since independence and lesson learned from it.
• Mention about the changes is indian defence policies with respect to these wars chronologically.

India’s national policy has always been non- confrontational with emphasis on resolving issues diplomatically through dialogue and negotiations. Despite India’s morbid aversion for employment of hard power in pursuit of national interest and protect its territorial integrity, India has been drawn into a number of major conflicts by its belligerent neighbours. J&K in 1947-48, Chinese debacle in 1962, Indo-Pak War in 1965, liberation of Bangladesh in 1971, and 1999 Kargil War.

With that as background, Indian Army’s war experience could be studied to draw lessons and also see which lessons were ignored in subsequent wars and what structural and policy changes India brought in order to tackle such high intensity protracted wars.

Structural and policy changes by India during some major wars:

1. Operations in Jammu and Kashmir 1947-48
Even after the war in J&K there was no effort made to strengthen the Army and make a robust defence plan. In fact there was a strong sentiment to do away with the Army. This is what Nehru was alleged to have said: “We don’t need a defence plan. Our policy is ahimsa [non-violence]. We foresee no military threats. Scrap the Army! The police is good enough to meet our security needs.” And so the Army was downsized and used for mundane tasks considered “nation building” .

2.Chinese debacle in 1962 and Indo-Pak War in 1965
The 1962 Sino-Indian War was both a surprise and a disaster for India and the ramifications were numerous and far- reaching. It was now clear that India’s security arrangements based on the outlook that Nehru had on India’s governance, were futile. A unanimous approach was then adopted that worked towards allocating more resources to the development of the country’s military capabilities. This was seen in three major ways.

Firstly, the Defence Budget in 1963 was allocated 4% of India’s GNP, as against 2.7% that had been allocated in 1962. India’s Military Strategy during this time frame can be described “Offensive Defensive Posture,” as against the “Defensive Posture” description given to the strategy during 1947-1962.

Secondly, “The Sino-Indian conflict in 1962 aroused a new defence consciousness in the country. After taking care of immediate post- war requirements, systematic defence planning started in 1964.This took the form of the Five Year Defence Plans, the first of this being launched in April 1964. Threat perception from the aspect of the Army, Air Force and Navy was duly assessed, after which plans were drawn up that mainly focused on expansion and modernisation of the Services.

Lastly, a Planning Cell was also established in 1965 that worked with the Ministry of Defence (MoD) and helped the latter deal with the wider aspects of defence planning.

The period of 1963-1971 also witnessed a steady development in the relations between India and the Soviet Union. During the 1960s the relations between India and the USSR improved. This relationship helped India gain massively in the field of technology and its transfer, apart from the stronger footing in global politics, even though they followed the policy of Non-Alignment. The Soviets accepted this and chose to help bolster the Indian Economy by helping build industries at low cost with minimum Soviet personnel being stationed in India during the process. It was due to the Soviet support that India’s Military Strategy during this time period became “offensive defensive” in nature

3. Liberation of Bangladesh in 1971
In this war India exploited the full potential of all the elements of national power. The diplomatic offensive mobilised global public opinion in India’s favour. “The political and military aims were carefully determined,dove-tailed and pursued single-mindedly. The extremely cohesive team of political leaders, service chiefs and bureaucrats planned everything comprehensively and well in time. '' Consequently the balance of power in South Asia readjusted itself in accordance to the changed profile of india.

4. Kargil War 1999
The war in Kargil was fought to restore status quo on the Line of Control (LC) which had been surreptitiously violated by Pakistani Army and irregular forces in the Drass-Kargil- Mashkoh areas. At the national level it emerged that India must be prepared for Pakistan’s recklessness which could occur in different areas and forms: terrorism throughout India, conventional operations and incursions, increased level of proxy war in J&K and a variety of non-traditional threats. Pakistan is a risk-acceptant, untrustworthy state controlled by the military which is virulently anti-India. At the end of the war India was forced to commit additional forces along the LC in a forward posture to prevent such incursions in the future.