Gist of EPW February Week 4, 2022

The Economic and Political Weekly (EPW) is an important source of study material for IAS, especially for the current affairs segment. In this section, we give you the gist of the EPW magazine every week. The important topics covered in the weekly are analyzed and explained in a simple language, all from a UPSC perspective.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Policy Paradox in Higher Education
2. Who Controls the Levers of the India–US Relations?
3. Assessing Marine Plastic Pollution in India

1. Policy Paradox in Higher Education

Context

The new changes in the National Overseas Scholarship (NOS) scheme.

National Overseas Scholarship (NOS) scheme

• The scheme is a Central Sector Scheme formulated by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment (MSJE).
• It is regarded as a significant scheme that would assist the aspirations of students from marginalised communities to abroad for higher education.
• Objective: to facilitate the low-income students belonging to the Scheduled Castes, Denotified Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes, Landless Agricultural Labourers and Traditional Artisans category to obtain higher education viz., Master degree or Ph.D. courses by studying abroad thereby improving their Economic and Social status.
• In each Selection Year, 125 candidates from the above-mentioned categories will be eligible to avail of funding under the Scheme and 30% of the total seats are reserved for female candidates.
• Eligibility:
  • Bachelors Level courses in any discipline are not covered.
  • A score of minimum 60% marks or equivalent grade in the qualifying examination is required.
  • Should not be aged more than 35 years.
  • Not more than two children of the same parents will be eligible for scholarship under the scheme.

New Guidelines

• The Department of Social Justice and Empowerment (DSJE) recently introduced a specific condition that excludes subjects or topics that broadly come under the umbrella of humanities and social sciences from the purview of this scheme.
• Courses concerning Indian Culture/heritage/History/Social studies shall not be covered under the NOS scheme.
• Further, the final decision as to which Topic can be covered under such categories will rest with a Selection-cum-Screening Committee of NOS.
• This implies that students who intend to pursue research work in the above-mentioned areas will be excluded from the purview of the SOS scheme. 

Reasons for the new guidelines

• The Western narrative of “India” and its “history and culture” is often seen misrepresenting the actual facts and found contracting to the Indian narrative.
• To promote the study of these topics and subjects in Indian universities by restricting scholarships for the admission of these courses outside the country.

Criticism on the changes

• Critics opine that the new changes have negative impacts on the aspirations of marginalized communities.
• With discretionary powers to a government-appointed selection-cum-screening committee, the candidates face a risk of facing exclusion if their research work is critical of the incumbent government.
• Arbitrary discretionary powers also pose a risk of prejudice and discrimination.
• The new guidelines also curtail and discourage students from taking up a course or subject of their choice and interest.
• The government’s stand towards higher education suggests a policy paradox:
  • i.e. the government wants to promote studies on Indian history and culture on the one hand and it denies students an opportunity to study about their own country’s history and culture at a foreign university on the other hand.
• The government’s move is criticised as a means of control and censorship.

2. Who Controls the Levers of the India–US Relations?

Context

Evolution of the India-US Relations.

Details

• There is a perception that India was not keen on strong relations with the United States.
• There is a significant shift in India’s Foreign Policy which is now more centred around the United States.
• The change is attributed to the change in leadership in India which is led by the current Prime Minister Narendra Modi.

Nehruvian era

• India’s Foreign Policy under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru was mainly centred around Non-alignment and strategic autonomy.
• Despite the influence of the Soviet Union on India’s Foreign Policy, India had shown instances of concurrence with the United States on many occasions.
• India’s foreign approaches were in line with America’s strategic measures in Korea and Tibet.
• India’s declaration of the Indian Ocean as a “zone of peace” is seen as an assertion of India’s strategic autonomy. 
  • This however did not affect the Americans, but it went against the ambitions of the Soviet Union to bring in nuclear naval weapons to India.
• Though India was hesitant to send its troops to Korea, it sent a Parachute Field Ambulance Regiment to assist the allies to prove its credentials as a non-aligned power.
• During 1947-48, India supported US-sponsored United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) resolutions that legalised the United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea (UNTCOK) that was not recognised by the Soviet Union.
• India also supported the Security Council resolution, which declared North Korea as the aggressor.
• On the issue of Tibet, India aligned with the American plans of highlighting the Tibetan issue and making it an international hotspot, despite knowing that the move would disturb its relations with China.
  • Eventually, the Tibet issue became one of the key factors for the India-China war in 1962.
  • India looked towards the U.S. for support during the war.
• Throughout the Nehruvian era, the U.S. was India’s major strategic partner.

Post Nehru era

• In the 1960s, the American economists urged India to devalue its currency (in line with the liberalisation of the economy) in exchange for a lump sum World Bank loan.
  • The then Indian Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi obliged by devaluing the rupee in 1966, but the World Bank failed to fulfil its promise of disbursing the loan.
  • This was followed by a strict food aid policy by the U.S. which expected a stronger Indian commitment to agricultural reforms based on the U.S. agribusiness model
• The U.S. also strengthened its relations with China and Pakistan during this phase which pushed India more towards the Soviet Union.
• Further, the U.S. extended its support to Pakistan in the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation war against India.
• However, there was a shift in India-US relations in the 1980s.
• India agreed to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) conditions in return for a big loan. 
  • The reform agenda gained momentum during India’s economic liberalisation phase in the mid-1980s with the help of Western-educated economists like Jagdish Bhagwati, I G Patel, P N Jha, and Manmohan Singh.

India-U.S. Relations under the Leadership of Narendra Modi

• Experts who have analysed the Indian foreign policy opine that India under Modi has initiated a radical break from the past and has achieved notable victories in the external affairs domain.
• India has successfully offered the world a cultural package and ensured that the ethos of Indian foreign policy does not continue to be based on the ideological assumptions from the previous era.
• Experts also believe that new India has built partnerships across the globe and has also included military dimensions.
• The change is largely driven by the shift in American strategic focus towards the Indo-Pacific region.
• The U.S.’s exit from Afghanistan has also forced the U.S. to collaborate closely with India, despite India’s closeness with Russia.
• The rise of China as a serious competitor to the interests of the U.S. in the 21st century has further bolstered the relationship between India and US.

Conclusion

Analysis of the past 75 years of India’s Foreign Policy reveals that the current India-US relations are stronger than ever and have become more multi-faceted, covering cooperation in areas such as trade, defense and security, education, science and technology, civil nuclear energy, space technology and applications, environment, and health, which serves the best interests of both the countries.

3. Assessing Marine Plastic Pollution in India

Context

This article throws light on the rampant use of plastics in India and its impact on marine ecosystems.

Plastic Pollution across the Globe

• The severity of plastic pollution in India was highlighted during the United Nations (UN) Environment Day 2018 which had the theme “Beat Plastic Pollution.”  
• Plastics have become common in almost everything that is produced and consumed. The dependence on plastics in India has become inseparable.
• Inadequate sustainable plastic waste disposal mechanisms have caused immense pollution not just in India but across the globe.
• Growing plastic pollution in marine ecosystems is one of the major causes of concern worldwide.

Types of Plastic Wastes

Plastic wastes are broadly classified based on their sizes as:

• Macro-plastics
  • Size: greater than 200 mm
  • Sources: plastic bags and plastic sheets
  • Globally scale of pollution: 75%
• Meso-plastics
  • Size: between 5 mm to 200 mm 
  • Sources: plastic bottles and package material
  • Globally scale of pollution: 12%
• Microplastics 
  • Size: smaller than 5 mm
  • Sources: plastic pellets used in cosmetics and toothpaste
  • Globally scale of pollution: 13%

Marine plastic pollution

• Around 5.25 trillion plastic items (including microplastics) are said to be floating in the world’s oceans, which account for nearly 2.5 lakh tonnes.
• Microplastics are abundant in the marine environment and their highest concentration is found along coastlines and in mid-ocean gyres.
• A United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) report in 2021 estimated that emissions of plastic waste into the aquatic ecosystems would triple by 2040 if no actions are undertaken.
• In 2010, 275 million metric tonnes (MMT) of plastic waste were generated in 192 countries.
  • Out of this, about 12.7 MMT ended up in the marine bodies.

Sources of Plastic Waste in Marine Ecosystems

• Marine plastic waste is usually caused due to land sources (80%) like
  • Municipal and industrial waste dumped into the sea
  • Transportation of plastic wastes to the coast
  • Untreated sewage discharges
  • Plastic littering at the coast and islands due to tourism
• Plastic wastes are also generated within the marine environment because of 
  • Plastic disposals from ships and vessels
  • Waste from marine tourism vessels
  • Plastic waste from fishing ferries and boats

Marine Pollution in India

• India is said to be the 12th largest contributor to marine plastic pollution in the world.
• Per capita waste generated by urban India has increased from 0.44 kg in 2001 to 0.5 kg in 2011.
  • Out of the total solid waste generated in India, 3% is estimated to be plastic wastes.
• Based on the above assumption that plastic waste constitutes 3% of the total solid waste, the estimated plastic waste generated by urban India will be 4,834 tonnes per year by 2041.
• River Ganga is reported to be the second most polluted river in the world with an annual marine plastic waste of 0.17 million tonnes.
• The percentage of plastics in marine ecosystems is about 40% to 47% in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep compared to 14% in mainland India. 
• It is not just because of pollution from India but also due to countries such as Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
• Plastic waste treatment plants are inadequate in India as about 87% of the plastic waste is mismanaged in India.
• Marine plastic pollution has become a serious issue in states like Kerala, Maharashtra, and Goa.

Impacts of Marine Pollution

• Marine biodiversity – Marine plastics impact marine biodiversity through phenomena such as,
  • Entanglements i.e. marine animals getting entangled in plastic debris 
  • Ingestion – fish, mammals, turtles, and seabirds ingest plastic leading to the blockage of their digestive system that may cause death
  • Impacts corals and seagrasses
  • Invasions of alien species
• Economy 
  • Marine litter costs about $13 billion a year, mainly through negative impacts on fisheries, tourism, and biodiversity.
  • Damages to coral reefs result in the loss of fish further affecting the economy of the fisheries sector.
  • Plastic waste causes significant damage to ships and fishery boats.
  • It decreases the aesthetic value of beaches, affecting recreational activities and tourism.
• Mangrove ecosystem
  • Plastics in the mangrove creeks of Mumbai affect the root network of mangroves.
  • This further impacts the species that are dependent on the mangrove ecosystem.
• Human health
  • Microplastic particles have led to the contamination of the food web, including human health, as locals consume prawns and fish.
  • Humans consume marine species that have ingested plastic, which has high toxic contents that cause carcinogenesis and endocrine disruption.
  • It is reported that the cost to human health and safety due to marine debris is about $1.80 million in the U.K.
• Urban floods
  • The accumulation of plastics hinders water flow and is considered to be one of the major causes of the Mumbai floods in 2005. 
  • Blockage of tidal flow also impacts the feeding sites of many animals.

Way forward

• Despite India being a low producer of plastic, it is one of the largest marine plastic polluters mainly due to the mismanagement of plastic waste.
  • Urgent policy interventions are required to improve plastic management in the country.
• Interdisciplinary studies are to be taken up that highlights the impacts of such pollution. 
• Government should consider marine plastic pollution as an emergency and should involve itself actively in disseminating information, building up awareness, and drafting policy to prevent, manage, and reduce marine plastic waste.
• Products that contain microplastics such as personal care or cosmetics should be discouraged and the use of plastic substitutes should be encouraged. 
• The environment regulation for plastics should include a ‘command and control’ approach.
  • The “Command-and-control” approach demands the polluters to meet emission-reduction targets and facilitates the installation and use of specific types of equipment to reduce emissions.
• Eco-taxes may be imposed in the various stages of production, consumption or disposal of plastics.
• A major quantity of marine plastic comes from river networks, thus integrated management of river and ocean debris is required.
• Solid waste management programmes must be integrated with urban infrastructure.

Conclusion

Immediate initiatives like banning plastic littering, strengthening plastic waste management infrastructure and making waste segregation at the source mandatory are required to manage plastic wastes that further leads to a circular economy in plastic waste management in India.

Read previous EPW articles in the link.

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