The Coming of Europeans [UPSC Modern History Notes]

The commercial contacts between India and Europe were very old via the land route either through the Oxus valley or Syria or Egypt. With the discovery of the new sea route via the Cape of Good Hope by Vasco da Gama in 1498, trade increased and many trading companies came to India and established their trading centres. This is an important period in the history of India and is very crucial for the IAS exam. 

They started as traders but with the passage of time, in order to safeguard their commercial interests, they aimed at dominating the politics of India. Thus, the commercial rivalry among the European powers resulted in political rivalry and this not only brought them into conflict with each other but with Indian rulers too. Ultimately, the British succeeded in establishing their rule in India.

Portuguese in India

In this section, you can read about the Portuguese rule in India that lasted for over 450 years. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in India and the last to leave.

• In c. 1498 CE, Vasco da Gama of Portugal discovered a new sea route from Europe to India. He sailed around Africa via the Cape of Good Hope and reached Calicut. Read more about da Gama’s landing in Calicut in This Day in History dated May 20.
• He was welcomed by the Zamorin, the Hindu ruler of Calicut and returned to Portugal in the next year making huge profits from the Indian cargo that was worth 60 times the cost of his expedition.
• In c. 1500 CE, another Portuguese Pedro Alvares Cabral arrived in India and Vasco da Gama also made a second trip in c. 1502 CE.
• The Portuguese established trading settlements at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore.
• The first governor of the Portuguese in India was Francis de Almeida.
• In c. 1509 CE, Afonso de Albuquerque was made the governor of the Portuguese territories in India and in c. 1510 CE, he captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur (during the reign of Sikander Lodhi) and thereafter, Goa became the capital of the Portuguese settlements in India.
• The Portuguese established their domination over the entire Asian coast from Hormuz in the Persian Gulf to Malacca in Malaya and the spice islands in Indonesia. At the time of the death of Afonso de Albuquerque, the Portuguese were the strongest naval power in India.
• In c. 1530 CE, Nino da Cunha captured Diu and Bassein from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. They also established settlements at Salsette, Daman and Bombay on the west coast and at San Thome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal on the east coast.
• However, the Portuguese power declined in India by the end of the 16th century and they lost all their acquired territories in India except Daman, Diu and Goa.

Portuguese Contributions to India

• They brought tobacco cultivation to India. They established the first printing press at Goa in c. 1556 CE.
• “The Indian Medicinal Plants” was the first scientific work which was published at Goa in c. 1563 CE.

Causes of Decline of Portuguese in India

In this section, the causes for the Portuguese decline in India are discussed.

1. The governors that succeeded Afonso de Albuquerque were weak and less competent which eventually led to the decline of the Portuguese Empire in India.
2. The Portuguese were intolerant and fanatical in religious matters. They indulged in forcible conversion of the native people to Christianity. Their approach in this respect was hateful to the people of India where religious tolerance was the rule.
3. The Portuguese administration was more interested in making fortunes for themselves which resulted in the further alienation of the people of India. They were also involved in inhuman cruelties and lawlessness. They did not even shy away from piracy and plunder. All these acts resulted in a hostile attitude towards the Portuguese. 
4. The Portuguese and the Spanish had left the English and the Dutch far behind during the 15th century and the first half of the 16th century. But in the later half of the 16th century, England and Holland, and later, France, all growing commercial and naval powers, waged a fierce struggle against the Spanish and the Portuguese monopoly of world trade. In this struggle, the latter were subjugated. This also weakened their power in India.
5. Also the might of the Mughal Empire and the growing power of the Marathas did not let the Portuguese maintain their trade monopoly for long in India. For instance, they clashed with the Mughal power in Bengal in c. 1631 CE and were driven out of their settlement at Hughli.
6. The Portuguese discovered Brazil in Latin America and began to pay much more attention to it than its territories in India.
7. When Portugal came under Spain in c. 1580 CE, the Spanish interests predominated over the Portugal interests which were subsequently side lined. 

Dutch in India

The Dutch East India Company was established in c. 1602 CE under the name Vereenigde Oost Indische Compagnie (VOC). Dutch set up their first factory at Masulipatnam in Andhra. They also established trading depots at Surat, Broach, Cambay and Ahmedabad in Gujarat in west India, Cochin in Kerala, Chinsura in Bengal, Patna in Bihar and Agra in U.P. Pulicat (Tamil Nadu) was their main centre in India and later, it was replaced by Nagapattinam. In the 17th century, they won over the Portuguese and emerged the most dominant power in European trade in the East. They dislodged the Portuguese from the Malay straits and the Indonesian islands, and in c. 1623 defeated English attempts to establish themselves there. The Anglo-Dutch rivalry continued for about seven years during which the Dutch lost their settlements to the British one by one and finally, the Dutch were defeated by the English in the Battle of Bedara in c. 1759.

British in India

The English Association or Company to trade with the East was formed in c. 1599 CE under the auspices of a group of merchants known as “The merchant Adventurers”. The company was given a royal charter and the exclusive privilege to trade in the East by Queen Elizabeth on 31st December c.1600 CE and was popularly known as the East India Company.

• In c. 1609 CE, Captain William Hawkins arrived at the court of Mughal Emperor Jahangir to seek permission to establish an English trading centre at Surat.
• But it was refused by the Emperor due to pressure from the Portuguese.
• Later in c. 1612 CE, Jahangir permitted the East India Company to set up a factory at Surat.
• In c. 1615 CE, Sir Thomas Roe came to the Mughal court as ambassador of James Ⅰ, the king of England and succeeded in getting an Imperial farman to trade and establish factories in different parts of India.
• Thus, by c. 1619 CE, the English established their factories at Agra, Ahmedabad, Baroda and Broach.
• The English opened their first factory in the south at Masulipatnam.
• In c. 1639 CE, Francis Day obtained the site of Madras from the Raja of Chandragiri and built a small fort around their factory called Fort St. George. Read more on this incident in This Day in History dated August 22.
• Madras soon replaced Masulipatnam as the headquarters of the English on the Coromandel coast.
• The English East India Company acquired Bombay from Charles Ⅱ, the then king of England in c. 1668 CE and Bombay became the headquarters of the company on the west coast.
• In c. 1690 CE, an English factory was established at a place called Sutanuti by Job Charnock. Later, it developed into the city of Calcutta where Fort William was built and which later became the capital of British India.
• British settlements in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta became the nuclei of flourishing cities.
• The British East India Company grew in power and tended to acquire the status of a sovereign state in India.

Get important notes on the British Raj in UPSC Modern History Notes in the link.

French in India

The French East India Company was founded in c. 1664 CE by Colbert, a minister under Louis ⅩⅣ. In c. 1668 CE, the first French factory was set up at Surat by Francis Caron. In c. 1669 CE, Maracara established a factory at Masulipatnam. In c. 1673 CE, Francois Martin founded Pondicherry (Fort Louis), which became the headquarters of the French possessions in India and he became its first governor. In c. 1690 CE, the French acquired Chandranagore near Calcutta from the governor, Shaista Khan. The  French established their factories at Balasore, Mahe, Qasim Bazar and Karaikal. The arrival of Joseph François Dupleix as French governor in India in c. 1742 CE saw the beginning of the Anglo-French conflict which resulted in the famous Carnatic wars. 

Read more on French colonialism in India.

Danes (from Denmark) in India

The Danes established an East India Company in c. 1616 CE. They formed settlements at Tranquebar (Tamil Nadu) in c. 1620 CE and at Serampore (Bengal) in c. 1676 CE. Their headquarters was at Serampore. However, they could not strengthen themselves in India and had to sell all their settlements in India to the British in c. 1845 CE.

Anglo-French Rivalry

In the beginning of the 18th century, the English and the French were competing with each other to establish their dominance in India. They took advantage of the political turmoil in India which was due to the decline of the Mughal Empire.

The rivalry between the French and the English played out in the three Carnatic Wars. Know more about the Carnatic wars from the table below.

The Anglo French rivalry came to a close with British success and French failure. The causes of French failure can be summarised as follows–

1. Commercial and naval superiority of the English.
2. The French East India Company lacked adequate support from the French government.
3. The English had a strong base in Bengal while the French were supported only in the Deccan.
4. The French had only one port – Pondicherry while the English had three ports – Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
5. There were differences of opinion between the French Generals.
6. England’s victory in the European wars decided the destiny of the French in India.

France’s hope of building an empire in India was quashed after the third war and this paved the way for the British to become the paramount power in the subcontinent.

British Conquest of India

Battle of Plassey (c. 1757 CE)

• Bengal was the most fertile and the richest province of India. In c. 1717 CE, under a royal farman by the Mughal Emperor (Farrukhsiyar), the East India Company was granted the freedom to import and export their goods in Bengal without paying taxes and the right to issue passes or dastaks for the movement of such goods. All the nawabs of Bengal, from Murshid Quli Khan to Alivardi Khan had objected to the English interpretation of the farman of c.1717 CE.
•  In c. 1756 CE, Siraj ud Daulah succeeded his grandfather, Alivardi Khan and came in conflict with the British as he was against the misuse of dastaks. Siraj ud Daulah seized the English factory at Kasimbazar, marched on to Calcutta and occupied Fort William on 20 June, 1756 CE. The conflict between the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud Daulah and the English led to the Battle of Plassey held on 23rd June 1757 CE. Robert Clive, the commander of the British troops emerged victorious by defeating the Nawab’s army. The easy victory was due to the treachery of Mir Jafar, the commander of the Nawab’s army. The Nawab was forced to flee, was captured and put to death by Mir Jafar’s son, Miran.
• The English proclaimed Mir Jafar the Nawab of Bengal and the company was granted the undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in addition to other rewards. The Battle of Plassey was of immense historical significance as it paved the way for the British mastery of Bengal and eventually of the whole of India.

Read more on the Battle of Plassey in the link.

Battle of Buxar (c. 1764 CE)

• Mir Jafar was not able to satisfy the demands of the English, and he was forced to resign in c. 1760 CE and his son-in-law, Mir Qasim was put on the throne. He was an able, efficient and a strong ruler, who soon emerged as a threat to the English and their designs in Bengal.
• Mir Qasim was defeated in a series of battles in c. 1763 CE and fled to Awadh where he formed an alliance with Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh and Shah Alam Ⅱ, the Mughal Emperor. The three clashed with the Company’s army at Buxar on 22nd October c.1764 CE and were thoroughly defeated. The English military superiority was decisively established.
• In c. 1765 CE, Robert Clive was appointed as the governor of Bengal. Clive introduced a new administrative system in Bengal called Dual Government in which the nominal head was the Nawab of Bengal and the real power was in the hands of the British.

Read more on the Battle of Buxar in the link.

Treaty of Allahabad (c. 1764 CE)

• The province of Awadh was returned to Shuja-ud-Daulah but he had to pay Rs 50 Lakhs to the English. Shuja-ud-Daulah was forced to maintain English troops for the defence of his state.
• Shah Alam was forced to grant Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the English. Districts of Kara and Allahabad were given to Shah Alam and the English accorded a pension of Rs 26 Lakhs per year to him. 

In c. 1763 CE, the British restored Mir Jafar as the Nawab of Bengal and after his death, his second son, Nizam-ud-Daulah was placed on the throne. The Company gained supreme control over the administration of Bengal.

Conquest of Mysore

Hyder Ali, son of a faujdar of the Mysore army was born in c. 1721 CE. By his sheer hard work and determination, he became commander-in-chief of the army and when the ruler of Mysore died, he proclaimed himself as the ruler and became Sultan of Mysore. He was an able general and he strengthened his army by including French soldiers.

First Anglo-Mysore war (c. 1767 – 1769 CE)

The rapid rise of Hyder Ali excited the jealousy of the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Marathas and the English. They together formed an alliance and declared a war on Hyder Ali. By diplomacy, Hyder Ali won over the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad and the first Anglo-Mysore war ended with the defeat of the British. At the end of the war, a Treaty of Madras was signed, according to which both sides restored each other’s conquests and promised mutual help in case of an attack by a third party.

Second Anglo-Mysore war (c. 1780 – 1784 CE)

• In c. 1771 CE, Hyder Ali was attacked by the Marathas, however the English did not come to his help and the Treaty of Madras was violated. This led Hyder Ali to distrust the British and he wanted an opportunity to strike at them.
• When Mahe, a French possession in the dominion of Hyder Ali was attacked by the English, Hyder Ali declared war on the English in c. 1780 CE. Hyder Ali inflicted one defeat after another on the British armies in the Carnatic and made them surrender in large numbers. He soon occupied almost the entire Carnatic.
• Lord Warren Hastings, by a clever stroke of diplomacy divided the confederacy of Hyder Ali, the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas. He made peace with the Marathas and bribed the Nizam with the cession of Guntur district.
• In c. 1781 CE, the British under Eyre Coote defeated Hyder Ali at Porto Novo. After Hyder Ali’s death in c. 1782 CE, the war was carried on by his son Tipu Sultan. Read more on the Battle of Porto Novo in This Day in History dated July 1, 1781.
• The second Anglo-Mysore came to an end by the Treaty of Mangalore, according to which all conquests were mutually restored and the prisoners on both sides were liberated.

Read more on the First and Second Anglo-Mysore Wars in the link.

Third Anglo-Mysore war (c. 1790 – 1792 CE)

• Lord Cornwallis, the then Governor General succeeded through shrewd diplomacy in isolating Tipu Sultan by winning over the Marathas, the Nizam and the rulers of Travancore and Coorg.
• War broke out in c. 1790 CE between the English and Tipu, and ended in Tipu’s defeat in c. 1792 CE. The war ended with the Treaty of Seringapatam, according to which Tipu lost half of his territories i.e, Malabar, Coorg, Dindugal, Baramahal (now Salem and Erode). Tipu was compelled to pay a war indemnity of 3 crore rupees and had to surrender two of his sons as hostages to the English until he paid the indemnity. After this war, although the strength of Mysore was reduced, it was not extinguished; Tipu was defeated but not destroyed.

Fourth Anglo Mysore war (c. 1798 – 1799 CE)

• The then Governor General, Lord Wellesly tried to persuade Tipu to accept a pact of subsidiary alliance and wrote letters requesting Tipu to dismiss the French, to receive an English envoy, and to make terms with the company and its allies. Tipu paid little attention to Wellesley’s letters and thus, the fourth Anglo-Mysore war started.
• The Bombay army under General Stuart invaded Mysore from the west. The Madras army, which was led by the Governor-General’s brother, Arthur Wellesley, forced Tipu to retreat to his capital Srirangapattanam. Tipu fought bravely but died in the battle. 
• The central part of Mysore was given to Krishna Raja of the Wadiar dynasty. The remaining parts of the kingdom were divided between the British and the Nizam. Tipu’s family was sent to the fort of Vellore.

Read more on the Third and Fourth Anglo-Mysore Wars in the link.

British Struggle with Marathas

First Anglo-Maratha war (c. 1775 – 1782 CE)

• In c. 1772 CE, Madhava Rao (Maratha Peshwa) died and was succeeded by his younger brother, Narayan Rao but his uncle Raghunath Rao alias Raghoba murdered him and announced himself as the next Peshwa. The Maratha leaders under the able leadership of Nana Phadnavis disregarded the authority of Raghoba and appointed Madhava Rao Narayana, the infant son of Narayan Rao as the Peshwa.
• Raghoba went to the British to seek their help for obtaining Peshwaship. The British authorities in Bombay concluded the Treaty of Surat with Raghunath Rao in c. 1775 CE. Raghunath Rao agreed to hand over the islands of Salsette and Bassein to the British.
• The Battle at Talegaon (c. 1776 CE) was fought in which the Marathas defeated the British. The Treaty of Purander (c. 1776 CE) was signed much to the advantage of the Marathas and this raised the position of Nana Phadnavis among Marathas.
• In c. 1781 CE, Warren Hastings dispatched British troops under the command of Captain Popham. He defeated the Maratha chief, Mahadaji Scindia, in a number of small battles and captured Gwalior. In c. 1782 CE, the Treaty of Salbai was signed between Warren Hastings and Mahadaji Scindia. Raghunath Rao was pensioned off and Madhav Rao Ⅱ was accepted as the Peshwa. It provided the British twenty years of peace with the Marathas. The treaty also enabled the British to exert pressure on Mysore with the help of the Marathas in recovering their territories from Hyder Ali.

Know more about the First Anglo-Maratha War in the link.

Second Anglo-Maratha war (c. 1803 – 1805 CE)

• Treaty of Bassein (c. 1802 CE) – Nana Phadnavis who kept the Maratha confederacy together for the last 30 years died in c. 1800 CE. After his death, the infighting among the Maratha leaders proved to be self-destructive. Jaswant Rao Holkar and Daulat Rao Scindia were fighting against each other and the Peshwa, Baji Rao Ⅱ supported Scindia against Holkar. The combined armies of Scindia and Peshwa were utterly defeated by the Holkars. Peshwa Baji Rao Ⅱ approached the British for protection and signed the Treaty of Bassein with the British in c. 1802 CE. It was a subsidiary treaty and the Peshwa was recognised as the head of the Maratha kingdom. In accordance with this document, the foreign policy of the Marathas came under British control and therefore, any action of the Maratha chiefs against the British was successfully prevented. The Marathas considered the treaty as a document that surrendered their independence.
• Raghoji Bhonsle and Daulat Rao Scindia took the Treaty of Bassein as an insult to the national honour of the Marathas. The forces of both the chieftains were united, however, the English defeated the combined forces of Scindia and Bhonsle under Arthur Wellesley at Assaye near Aurangabad (c. 1803 CE). Subsequently, Arthur Wellesley carried the war into Bhonsle’s territory and defeated the Maratha forces on the plains of Argaon. As a result, the Treaty of Deogaon was signed between Bhonsle and Wellesley which forced Bhonsle to give up the province of Cuttack in Orissa.
• In the north, Lord Lake routed Scindia’s army at Laswari and occupied Aligarh, Delhi and Agra. Lake took Shah Alam, the Mughal Emperor under his protection.
• Wellesley now turned his attention towards Holkar, but Yeshwant Rao Holkar proved more than a match for the British and Holkar remained unsubdued.

Know more about the Second Anglo-Maratha War in the link.

Third Anglo-Maratha war (c. 1817 – 1818 CE)

• The second Anglo-Maratha war had shattered the power of the Maratha chiefs but not their spirit. They made a desperate last attempt to regain their independence and old prestige in c. 1818 CE. The Peshwa attacked the British Residency at Poona in c. 1817 CE but was defeated. Appa Sahib (the Bhonsle chief) refused to accept the Treaty of Nagpur, which he had signed with the British in c. 1816 CE. According to this treaty, Nagpur came under the control of the company. He fought the British in the Battle of Sitabaldi in November 1817 CE, but was defeated. Holkar too was defeated by the British on 21st December 1817 CE at Baroda. Therefore, by December c.1818 CE the dream of a mighty Maratha Confederacy was finally shattered.
• Results of the war – The Peshwa Baji Rao Ⅱ was pensioned off at Bithur in Kanpur. His territories were annexed and the enlarged Presidency of Bombay came into existence in this region. Holkar and Bhonsle accepted Subsidiary forces. To satisfy the Maratha pride, a small state of Satara was created under Pratap Singh, a descendant of Shivaji who ruled it as a complete dependent of the British.
• By c. 1818 CE, the entire Indian subcontinent, except Punjab and Sindh was brought under British Control.

Know more about the Third Anglo-Maratha War in the link.

The consolidation of British Power (1818 – 57)

The British completed the task of conquering the whole of India from c. 1818 – 1857 CE. Sindh and the Punjab were conquered and Awadh, the central provinces and a large number of other petty states were annexed.

The Conquest of Sindh

• The conquest of Sindh occurred as a result of the growing Anglo-Russian rivalry in Europe and Asia and the consequent British fears that Russia might attack India through Afghanistan and Persia. To counter Russia, the British government decided to increase its influence in Afghanistan and Persia. This could be done only if Sindh was brought under British dominion. The British authorities also wanted to explore the commercial possibilities of the river Sindh.
• The roads and rivers of Sindh were opened to British trade by a treaty in c. 1832 (by Lord Bentinck).
• The chiefs of Sindh, known as Amirs, were forced by Lord Aukland to sign the Subsidiary Alliance in c. 1839 CE.
• In spite of previous assurances that its territorial integrity would be respected, Sindh was annexed in c. 1843 CE after a brief campaign by Sir Charles Napier. Charles Napier destroyed Imamgarh, the famous desert fortress. In retaliation, Baluchis attacked the British resident and declared a war on the British. The battle of Miani ensued in which the Baluchi army was defeated by Napier and some Amirs had to surrender. Later, battle of Dabo took place in which Napier defeated Sher Muhammad (Amir of Mirpur) and thus, Sher Muhammad was expelled from Sindh resulting in the formal annexation of Sindh (c. 1843 CE). Napier was appointed the first Governor of Sindh and received 7 lakh rupees as prize money for accomplishment of the task.

The Conquest of the Punjab

• The death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in c. 1839 CE was followed by political instability and rapid changes of government in the Punjab. Next three rulers, Kharak Singh, Nao Nihal Singh and Sher Singh were murdered within the next six years (c. 1839 – 45 CE). In c. 1845 CE, Dalip Singh, the five-year-old son of Ranjit Singh ascended the throne and his mother Maharani Jind Kaur acted as a regent to her son.
• British encirclement of Punjab started from c. 1833 CE, when they appointed British residents at Ludhiana and Sindh. After the annexation of Sindh, a series of battles happened between the British and Sikh rulers which form a part of the First Anglo-Sikh war (c. 1845 – 46 CE).
  • Battle of Muduks (c. 1845 CE) was fought between Lal Singh (Prime Minister of Sikhs) and Sir Hugh Gough in which the Sikh army was defeated.
  • Battle of Ferozpur (c. 1845 CE) was fought between Sikh army under Tej Singh and the British in which the Sikhs were defeated.
  • Battle of Buddewal (c. 1846 CE) was fought between Ranjeet Singh Maihithia and Harry Smith in which the Sikhs suffered a defeat.
  • Battle of Guns/Battle of Sobraon (c. 1846 CE) – One of the decisive battles between Harry Smith and the Sikhs. The British defeated the Sikhs and crossed Sutlej and also occupied Lahore. This battle resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Lahore (c. 1846 CE). Read more on the Battle of Sobraon in This Day in History dated February 10.
  • Treaty of Lahore – The Treaty of Lahore was signed on 8th March c. 1846 CE. According to this treaty, Jalandhar Doab was given to the British along with a payment of one and a half crore to the British. The Sikhs paid only half of the amount and for settling the rest they sold Kashmir to the British who sold it further to Raja Gulab Singh Dogra. 
  • Treaty of Bhairowal (c. 1846 CE) – Also known as the Second Treaty of Lahore. Rani Jind Kaur was removed and a regency council for Punjab was set up (consisting of eight sikh sardars) and presided over by Sir Henry Lawrence. Also, a British force was stationed at Lahore for which the Sikhs also needed to pay Rs.22 lacs. The Treaty of Bhairowal transformed the Sikh Kingdom into a virtual British protectorate.
• Second Anglo-Sikh war (c. 1848 – 49 CE) – The Second Anglo-Sikh war resulted in the annexation of Punjab by Lord Dalhousie in c. 1849 CE and Dalip Singh and Maharani Jind Kaur were transported to England. A board of three commissioners was established consisting of Henry Lawrence, John Lawrence and Charles G Mansel. In c. 1853 CE, this board was abolished and a chief commissioner for Punjab, Sir John Lawrence was appointed. Read more on the Second Anglo-Sikh war in the link.

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